Supporting on these measurements, the amount of TiO 2 at the surface of the textile fibers was estimated and compared with the acceptable exposure level to TiO 2 by inhalation, expressed per mask (AEL mask). To evaluate whether the TiO 2 particles in face masks possibly present a health risk, their amounts, their physicochemical properties and their localization were analyzed in a selection of face masks. This CLP classification 16 was adopted for titanium dioxide. 2, H351 (suspected human carcinogen) 15 by inhalation. In 2017, the Risk Assessment Committee (RAC) of the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) reviewed the carcinogenic potential of TiO 2 and proposed to classify Titanium dioxide as Carc. In animal experiments, toxic effects were reported when TiO 2 particles were inhaled 11, 12, as well as when they were ingested orally 13, 14. 5 warn for the possible future consequences caused by a poorly regulated use of nanotechnology in textiles applied to improve the performance of face masks. In their recent opinion paper, Palmeiri et al. Coatings of TiO 2 nanoparticles on cotton fabric were applied for enhanced self-cleaning and antibacterial properties 10. Nanofibers containing TiO 2 nanoparticles have been produced to create antimicrobial filters 7, also in combination with silver 8 and graphene 9. In addition, to introduce new solutions to the challenges associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, textile companies are incorporating specific nanofiber, nanocomposite and nanoparticle technology into face masks 5, 6. to improve stability to ultraviolet light, as white colorant or as a matting agent 3, 4. This suggests that TiO 2 is commonly applied in textiles of face masks, as in a wide variety of other textiles, e.g. A recent study, testing several batches of face masks intended to be put on sale as personal protective equipment, showed that 70% of the examined face masks contained TiO 2 in quantities ranging from 100 to 2000 mg kg −1 2. Wearing face masks is an important and widely applied public health measure to control the COVID-19 pandemic 1. Even so, these results urge for in depth research of (nano)technology applications in textiles to avoid possible future consequences caused by a poorly regulated use and to implement regulatory standards phasing out or limiting the amount of TiO 2 particles, following the safe-by-design principle. The importance of wearing face masks against COVID-19 is unquestionable. No assumptions were made about the likelihood of the release of TiO 2 particles itself, since direct measurement of release and inhalation uptake when face masks are worn could not be assessed. The estimated TiO 2 mass at the fiber surface ranged from 17 to 4394 µg, and systematically exceeded the acceptable exposure level to TiO 2 by inhalation (3.6 µg), determined based on a scenario where face masks are worn intensively. The total TiO 2 mass determined by ICP-OES ranged from 791 to 152,345 µg per mask. Median sizes of constituent particles ranged from 89 to 184 nm, implying an important fraction of nano-sized particles (< 100 nm). STEM-EDX analysis on sections of a variety of single use and reusable face masks visualized agglomerated near-spherical TiO 2 particles in non-woven fabrics, polyester, polyamide and bi-component fibers. Although titanium dioxide (TiO 2) is a suspected human carcinogen when inhaled, fiber-grade TiO 2 (nano)particles were demonstrated in synthetic textile fibers of face masks intended for the general public.
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